perf: reduce core live-memory footprint by 45% on large maps (#4507)

## Summary

Reduces the simulation's steady-state memory footprint. On Giant World
Map at 20 game-minutes (12 000 ticks, 400 bots, seed `perf-default`),
live memory after a full GC drops **293 MB → 161 MB (−45%)**; unforced
peak heap drops **326 MB → 165 MB**. The simulation also runs ~10%
faster (85 → 94 ticks/s). The final game-state hash is **bit-identical**
(`57830793797434300`) — no behavior change.

## Measurement (first commit)

The full-game perf harness gains a footprint mode:

- `--footprint` — forces a full GC at every `--window` boundary and
records the live heap / ArrayBuffer / RSS curve across the game
(requires `NODE_OPTIONS=--expose-gc`).
- `--snapshot-at 0,2000,12000` — writes V8 `.heapsnapshot` files at
chosen ticks.
- `HeapSnapshotRetainers.ts` — attributes every heap node to its nearest
meaningfully-named retainer (e.g. `PlayerImpl._tiles`), plus prints
retainer chains for all nodes ≥128 KB. `HeapSnapshotSummary.ts` is a
streaming fallback for snapshots too large to `JSON.parse`.

Baseline attribution at tick 12 000: player `_tiles`/`_borderTiles` Sets
**83 MB**, GameMap `refToX`/`refToY` lookup tables **38 MB**, two
duplicate 30.5 MB visited-scratch arrays, trade-ship stepper paths **15
MB**, a construction-only flood-fill queue **9.5 MB**.

## Optimizations

**Map-sized buffers (second commit):**
- `GameMap.x()/y()` compute `ref % width` / `(ref / width) | 0` instead
of reading two per-tile Uint16 tables (−38 MB). The arithmetic is
cheaper than the tables' random-access cache misses — this is where the
speedup comes from.
- `PlayerExecution` and `SpatialQuery` each kept their own per-game
generation-stamped visited `Uint32Array`; both now share one via
`TileTraversalScratch` (−30 MB).
- `PathFinderStepper` stores numeric paths as `Uint32Array` (half the
bytes; steppers hold their full path for a unit's whole journey).
- `ConnectedComponents` frees its flood-fill queue after `initialize()`.

**Player tile sets (third commit):**
- New `TileSet`: insertion-ordered set of tile refs backed by a dense
`Uint32Array` plus an open-addressing hash index — ~12 bytes/element vs
~34 for a native `Set<number>`. Deletes tombstone; compaction is
deferred while iteration is in progress so positions never shift under
an iterator.
- Iteration semantics match `Set` exactly (insertion order, entries
added mid-iteration visited, deleted ones skipped, delete+re-add moves
to end) — the simulation relies on this order for determinism, and the
unchanged hash confirms it.
- `Player.borderTiles()` now returns `ReadonlyTileSet` (a native `Set`
still satisfies it structurally); `GameRunner.playerBorderTiles` copies
into a real `Set` since that result crosses the worker boundary via
structured clone.

## Footprint curve (giant world map, live MB after forced GC)

| checkpoint | before | after |
|---|---|---|
| spawn end | 20 + 100 buf | 20 + 55 buf |
| tick 6301 | 119 + 161 buf | 29 + 127 buf |
| tick 12301 | 130 + 161 buf | 32 + 129 buf |

## Validation

- Final hash `57830793797434300` identical across baseline / round 1 /
round 2 runs (12 000 ticks).
- Full suite passes (1798 + 126 tests), including new `TileSet` tests:
order semantics, mutation-during-iteration parity with `Set`, tombstone
compaction, and a 20 000-op randomized differential test against native
`Set`.
- Runs recorded in
`tests/perf/output/footprint-{baseline,round1,round2}-giant.txt`.

🤖 Generated with [Claude Code](https://claude.com/claude-code)

---------

Co-authored-by: Claude Fable 5 <noreply@anthropic.com>

src/core/GameRunner.ts

@@ -275,7 +275,9 @@ export class GameRunner {
       throw new Error(`player with id ${playerID} not found`);
     }
     return {
-      borderTiles: player.borderTiles(),
+      // Copy into a plain Set: this result crosses the worker boundary via
+      // structured clone, which TileSet does not survive.
+      borderTiles: new Set(player.borderTiles()),
     } as PlayerBorderTiles;
   }
 

src/core/Util.ts

@@ -2,6 +2,7 @@ import DOMPurify from "dompurify";
 import { customAlphabet } from "nanoid";
 import { Cell, PlayerType, Unit } from "./game/Game";
 import { GameMap, TileRef } from "./game/GameMap";
+import { TileSet } from "./game/TileSet";
 import {
   GameConfig,
   GameID,
@@ -148,7 +149,7 @@ export function calculateBoundingBox(
     for (let i = 0; i < borderTiles.length; i++) {
       visit(borderTiles[i]);
     }
-  } else if (borderTiles instanceof Set) {
+  } else if (borderTiles instanceof Set || borderTiles instanceof TileSet) {
     borderTiles.forEach(visit);
   } else {
     for (const tile of borderTiles) {
@@ -213,7 +214,7 @@ export function getMode<T>(counts: Map<T, number>): T | null {
 
 export function calculateBoundingBoxCenter(
   gm: GameMap,
-  borderTiles: ReadonlySet<TileRef>,
+  borderTiles: Iterable<TileRef>,
 ): Cell {
   const { min, max } = calculateBoundingBox(gm, borderTiles);
   return boundingBoxCenter({ min, max });

src/core/execution/PlayerExecution.ts

@@ -8,18 +8,13 @@ import {
   UnitType,
 } from "../game/Game";
 import { GameMap, TileRef } from "../game/GameMap";
+import {
+  bumpTraversalGeneration,
+  tileTraversalScratch,
+  TileTraversalScratch,
+} from "../game/TileTraversalScratch";
 import { calculateBoundingBox, getMode, inscribed, simpleHash } from "../Util";
 
-interface ClusterTraversalState {
-  visited: Uint32Array;
-  gen: number;
-  // Reusable DFS stack for flood fills; cleared at the start of each fill.
-  stack: TileRef[];
-}
-
-// Per-game traversal state used by calculateClusters() to avoid per-player buffers.
-const traversalStates = new WeakMap<Game, ClusterTraversalState>();
-
 export class PlayerExecution implements Execution {
   private readonly ticksPerClusterCalc = 20;
 
@@ -370,28 +365,12 @@ export class PlayerExecution implements Execution {
     return this.active;
   }
 
-  private traversalState(): ClusterTraversalState {
+  private traversalState(): TileTraversalScratch {
-    const totalTiles = this.mg.width() * this.mg.height();
+    return tileTraversalScratch(this.mg);
-    let state = traversalStates.get(this.mg);
-    if (!state || state.visited.length < totalTiles) {
-      state = {
-        visited: new Uint32Array(totalTiles),
-        gen: 0,
-        stack: [],
-      };
-      traversalStates.set(this.mg, state);
-    }
-    return state;
   }
 
   private bumpGeneration(): number {
-    const state = this.traversalState();
+    return bumpTraversalGeneration(this.traversalState());
-    state.gen++;
-    if (state.gen === 0xffffffff) {
-      state.visited.fill(0);
-      state.gen = 1;
-    }
-    return state.gen;
   }
 
   private floodFillWithGen(

src/core/game/Game.ts

@@ -13,6 +13,7 @@ import {
 import { MotionPlanRecord } from "./MotionPlans";
 import { RailNetwork } from "./RailNetwork";
 import { Stats } from "./Stats";
+import { ReadonlyTileSet } from "./TileSet";
 import { UnitPredicate } from "./UnitGrid";
 
 function isEnumValue<T extends Record<string, string | number>>(
@@ -569,7 +570,7 @@ export interface Player {
 
   // Territory
   tiles(): ReadonlySet<TileRef>;
-  borderTiles(): ReadonlySet<TileRef>;
+  borderTiles(): ReadonlyTileSet;
   numTilesOwned(): number;
   conquer(tile: TileRef): void;
   relinquish(tile: TileRef): void;

src/core/game/GameMap.ts

@@ -111,15 +111,11 @@ export class GameMapImpl implements GameMap {
   private readonly width_: number;
   private readonly height_: number;
 
-  // Lookup tables (LUTs) contain pre-computed values to avoid performing division at runtime.
+  // Row-start ref per y, so ref(x, y) avoids a multiply. x/y are derived from
-  // Typed arrays are used instead of plain JS Array to keep memory tight on large maps:
+  // a ref arithmetically (ref % width, ref / width) rather than via per-tile
-  // Uint16Array uses 2 bytes/element vs ~8 bytes for a boxed number, saving ~53 MB on
+  // lookup tables — two Uint16 tables cost 4 bytes per tile (~32 MB on the
-  // the Indian Subcontinent map (2000×2220 = 4.44 M tiles).
+  // largest maps) and their random-access reads miss cache more often than
-  // Coordinates never exceed 65535 for any map in the game, so Uint16 is safe for x/y.
+  // the division costs.
-  // yToRef stores tile refs (up to width*height-1) which can exceed 65535 for large maps,
-  // so it uses Int32Array.
-  private readonly refToX: Uint16Array;
-  private readonly refToY: Uint16Array;
   private readonly yToRef: Int32Array;
 
   // Terrain bits (Uint8Array)
@@ -154,18 +150,9 @@ export class GameMapImpl implements GameMap {
     this.height_ = height;
     this.terrain = terrainData;
     this.state = new Uint16Array(width * height);
-    // Precompute the LUTs using typed arrays (see field declarations for rationale).
-    let ref = 0;
-    this.refToX = new Uint16Array(width * height);
-    this.refToY = new Uint16Array(width * height);
     this.yToRef = new Int32Array(height);
     for (let y = 0; y < height; y++) {
-      this.yToRef[y] = ref;
+      this.yToRef[y] = y * width;
-      for (let x = 0; x < width; x++) {
-        this.refToX[ref] = x;
-        this.refToY[ref] = y;
-        ref++;
-      }
     }
   }
   numTilesWithFallout(): number {
@@ -180,15 +167,15 @@ export class GameMapImpl implements GameMap {
   }
 
   isValidRef(ref: TileRef): boolean {
-    return ref >= 0 && ref < this.refToX.length;
+    return ref >= 0 && ref < this.width_ * this.height_;
   }
 
   x(ref: TileRef): number {
-    return this.refToX[ref];
+    return ref % this.width_;
   }
 
   y(ref: TileRef): number {
-    return this.refToY[ref];
+    return (ref / this.width_) | 0;
   }
 
   cell(ref: TileRef): Cell {
@@ -234,7 +221,7 @@ export class GameMapImpl implements GameMap {
       return false;
     }
     const w = this.width_;
-    const x = this.refToX[ref];
+    const x = ref % w;
     if (x !== 0 && this.isOcean(ref - 1)) return true;
     if (x !== w - 1 && this.isOcean(ref + 1)) return true;
     if (ref >= w && this.isOcean(ref - w)) return true;
@@ -330,7 +317,7 @@ export class GameMapImpl implements GameMap {
 
   isBorder(ref: TileRef): boolean {
     const w = this.width_;
-    const x = this.refToX[ref];
+    const x = ref % w;
     const owner = this.ownerID(ref);
     if (x !== 0 && this.ownerID(ref - 1) !== owner) return true;
     if (x !== w - 1 && this.ownerID(ref + 1) !== owner) return true;
@@ -383,7 +370,7 @@ export class GameMapImpl implements GameMap {
   neighbors(ref: TileRef): TileRef[] {
     const neighbors: TileRef[] = [];
     const w = this.width_;
-    const x = this.refToX[ref];
+    const x = ref % w;
 
     if (ref >= w) neighbors.push(ref - w);
     if (ref < (this.height_ - 1) * w) neighbors.push(ref + w);
@@ -395,7 +382,7 @@ export class GameMapImpl implements GameMap {
 
   forEachNeighbor(ref: TileRef, callback: (neighbor: TileRef) => void): void {
     const w = this.width_;
-    const x = this.refToX[ref];
+    const x = ref % w;
 
     if (ref >= w) callback(ref - w);
     if (ref < (this.height_ - 1) * w) callback(ref + w);
@@ -405,7 +392,7 @@ export class GameMapImpl implements GameMap {
 
   neighbors4(ref: TileRef, out: TileRef[]): number {
     const w = this.width_;
-    const x = this.refToX[ref];
+    const x = ref % w;
     let n = 0;
 
     if (ref >= w) out[n++] = ref - w;
@@ -420,7 +407,7 @@ export class GameMapImpl implements GameMap {
     callback: (neighbor: TileRef) => void,
   ): void {
     const w = this.width_;
-    const x = this.refToX[ref];
+    const x = ref % w;
     const hasN = ref >= w;
     const hasS = ref < (this.height_ - 1) * w;
 
@@ -501,7 +488,7 @@ export class GameMapImpl implements GameMap {
     while (q.length > 0) {
       const curr = q.pop();
       if (curr === undefined) continue;
-      const x = this.refToX[curr];
+      const x = curr % w;
       if (curr >= w) visit(curr - w);
       if (curr < southLimit) visit(curr + w);
       if (x !== 0) visit(curr - 1);

src/core/game/PlayerImpl.ts

@@ -53,6 +53,7 @@ import {
   GameUpdateType,
   PlayerUpdate,
 } from "./GameUpdates";
+import { ReadonlyTileSet, TileSet } from "./TileSet";
 import {
   bestShoreDeploymentSource,
   canBuildTransportShip,
@@ -111,10 +112,10 @@ export class PlayerImpl implements Player {
 
   private embargoes = new Map<PlayerID, Embargo>();
 
-  public _borderTiles: Set<TileRef> = new Set();
+  public _borderTiles = new TileSet();
 
   public _units: Unit[] = [];
-  public _tiles: Set<TileRef> = new Set();
+  public _tiles = new TileSet();
 
   public pastOutgoingAllianceRequests: AllianceRequest[] = [];
   private _expiredAlliances: Alliance[] = [];
@@ -479,7 +480,7 @@ export class PlayerImpl implements Player {
     return new Set(this._tiles.values()) as Set<TileRef>;
   }
 
-  borderTiles(): ReadonlySet<TileRef> {
+  borderTiles(): ReadonlyTileSet {
     return this._borderTiles;
   }
 

src/core/game/TileSet.ts

@@ -0,0 +1,219 @@
+import { TileRef } from "./GameMap";
+
+// Deleted dense slots hold this sentinel. Tile refs are grid indices and map
+// coordinates are capped at 65535, so the largest possible ref is
+// 65535 * 65535 - 1, which is below 2^32 - 1 — the sentinel can never be a
+// real tile.
+const TOMBSTONE = 0xffffffff;
+// Hash-table slot states (slots otherwise hold indices into `dense`).
+const EMPTY = -1;
+const DELETED = -2;
+
+/**
+ * The read surface of TileSet, mirroring the parts of ReadonlySet that
+ * simulation code uses. A native Set<TileRef> also satisfies this interface.
+ */
+export interface ReadonlyTileSet {
+  readonly size: number;
+  has(tile: TileRef): boolean;
+  forEach(
+    callback: (tile: TileRef, tile2: TileRef, set: ReadonlyTileSet) => void,
+  ): void;
+  values(): IterableIterator<TileRef>;
+  [Symbol.iterator](): IterableIterator<TileRef>;
+}
+
+/**
+ * An insertion-ordered set of tile refs with compact storage: values live in
+ * a Uint32Array in insertion order, with an open-addressing hash table (also
+ * a typed array) for membership. Compared to Set<TileRef> at V8's ~30+ bytes
+ * per element this costs ~12 bytes, which matters because every owned tile of
+ * every player sits in one of these for the whole game — tens of MB on large
+ * maps.
+ *
+ * Iteration semantics match Set: insertion order, entries added during
+ * iteration are visited, entries deleted during iteration are skipped, and a
+ * delete + re-add moves the value to the end. Deleted slots are tombstoned
+ * and reclaimed by compaction, which is deferred while any iteration is in
+ * progress so positions never shift under an iterator.
+ */
+export class TileSet implements ReadonlyTileSet {
+  private dense: Uint32Array = new Uint32Array(16);
+  // Used dense slots, including tombstones; live entries = size_.
+  private denseLen = 0;
+  private size_ = 0;
+  private table: Int32Array = new Int32Array(32).fill(EMPTY);
+  // Occupied table slots, including DELETED markers (bounds probe lengths).
+  private tableUsed = 0;
+  private iterDepth = 0;
+
+  constructor(values?: Iterable<TileRef>) {
+    if (values !== undefined) {
+      for (const v of values) {
+        this.add(v);
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  get size(): number {
+    return this.size_;
+  }
+
+  private static hash(value: number): number {
+    const h = Math.imul(value, 0x9e3779b1);
+    return (h ^ (h >>> 15)) >>> 0;
+  }
+
+  has(value: TileRef): boolean {
+    const table = this.table;
+    const dense = this.dense;
+    const mask = table.length - 1;
+    let slot = TileSet.hash(value) & mask;
+    for (;;) {
+      const di = table[slot];
+      if (di === EMPTY) return false;
+      if (di !== DELETED && dense[di] === value) return true;
+      slot = (slot + 1) & mask;
+    }
+  }
+
+  add(value: TileRef): this {
+    if (this.has(value)) return this;
+
+    if (this.denseLen === this.dense.length) {
+      // Prefer reclaiming tombstones over growing, unless an iterator is
+      // live (compaction shifts positions).
+      if (this.iterDepth === 0 && this.denseLen - this.size_ >= this.size_) {
+        this.compact(this.dense.length);
+      } else {
+        const grown = new Uint32Array(this.dense.length * 2);
+        grown.set(this.dense);
+        this.dense = grown;
+      }
+    }
+    // Keep the table under ~75% occupied so probe chains stay short and
+    // always hit an EMPTY slot.
+    if ((this.tableUsed + 1) * 4 > this.table.length * 3) {
+      this.rehash(
+        this.size_ * 4 > this.table.length
+          ? this.table.length * 2
+          : this.table.length, // mostly DELETED markers — same size, cleaned
+      );
+    }
+
+    const di = this.denseLen++;
+    this.dense[di] = value;
+    this.size_++;
+    const table = this.table;
+    const mask = table.length - 1;
+    let slot = TileSet.hash(value) & mask;
+    while (table[slot] >= 0) {
+      slot = (slot + 1) & mask;
+    }
+    if (table[slot] === EMPTY) this.tableUsed++;
+    table[slot] = di;
+    return this;
+  }
+
+  delete(value: TileRef): boolean {
+    const table = this.table;
+    const dense = this.dense;
+    const mask = table.length - 1;
+    let slot = TileSet.hash(value) & mask;
+    for (;;) {
+      const di = table[slot];
+      if (di === EMPTY) return false;
+      if (di !== DELETED && dense[di] === value) {
+        table[slot] = DELETED;
+        dense[di] = TOMBSTONE;
+        this.size_--;
+        // Mostly tombstones? Compact so long-dead players don't pin memory.
+        if (
+          this.iterDepth === 0 &&
+          this.denseLen >= 64 &&
+          this.denseLen - this.size_ > this.size_ * 2
+        ) {
+          this.compact(nextCapacity(this.size_));
+        }
+        return true;
+      }
+      slot = (slot + 1) & mask;
+    }
+  }
+
+  clear(): void {
+    this.dense = new Uint32Array(16);
+    this.denseLen = 0;
+    this.size_ = 0;
+    this.table = new Int32Array(32).fill(EMPTY);
+    this.tableUsed = 0;
+  }
+
+  forEach(
+    callback: (tile: TileRef, tile2: TileRef, set: ReadonlyTileSet) => void,
+  ): void {
+    this.iterDepth++;
+    try {
+      // denseLen and dense are re-read every step: entries appended during
+      // iteration must be visited, and an append can swap in a grown buffer.
+      for (let i = 0; i < this.denseLen; i++) {
+        const v = this.dense[i];
+        if (v !== TOMBSTONE) callback(v, v, this);
+      }
+    } finally {
+      this.iterDepth--;
+    }
+  }
+
+  *values(): IterableIterator<TileRef> {
+    this.iterDepth++;
+    try {
+      for (let i = 0; i < this.denseLen; i++) {
+        const v = this.dense[i];
+        if (v !== TOMBSTONE) yield v;
+      }
+    } finally {
+      this.iterDepth--;
+    }
+  }
+
+  [Symbol.iterator](): IterableIterator<TileRef> {
+    return this.values();
+  }
+
+  /** Rewrites dense storage without tombstones, preserving insertion order. */
+  private compact(capacity: number): void {
+    const compacted = new Uint32Array(Math.max(capacity, 16));
+    let n = 0;
+    for (let i = 0; i < this.denseLen; i++) {
+      const v = this.dense[i];
+      if (v !== TOMBSTONE) compacted[n++] = v;
+    }
+    this.dense = compacted;
+    this.denseLen = n;
+    this.rehash(Math.max(nextCapacity(n * 2), 32));
+  }
+
+  private rehash(tableLength: number): void {
+    const table = new Int32Array(tableLength).fill(EMPTY);
+    const mask = tableLength - 1;
+    const dense = this.dense;
+    for (let di = 0; di < this.denseLen; di++) {
+      if (dense[di] === TOMBSTONE) continue;
+      let slot = TileSet.hash(dense[di]) & mask;
+      while (table[slot] !== EMPTY) {
+        slot = (slot + 1) & mask;
+      }
+      table[slot] = di;
+    }
+    this.table = table;
+    this.tableUsed = this.size_;
+  }
+}
+
+/** Smallest power of two >= n (and >= 16). */
+function nextCapacity(n: number): number {
+  let cap = 16;
+  while (cap < n) cap *= 2;
+  return cap;
+}

src/core/game/TileTraversalScratch.ts

@@ -0,0 +1,44 @@
+import { Game } from "./Game";
+import { TileRef } from "./GameMap";
+
+/**
+ * Shared per-game traversal scratch: a generation-stamped visited array (one
+ * slot per tile) plus a reusable stack, so BFS/DFS passes over the map
+ * allocate nothing per query. A single scratch is shared by all traversal
+ * users of a game — the visited array alone is ~32 MB on the largest maps,
+ * so each user keeping its own would multiply that cost.
+ *
+ * Usage contract: call bumpTraversalGeneration() at the start of a traversal
+ * pass and treat visited[t] === gen as "seen this pass". A pass must run to
+ * completion synchronously — starting another pass (by any user) invalidates
+ * the previous generation's marks. The simulation is single-threaded and no
+ * current traversal triggers another mid-pass.
+ */
+export interface TileTraversalScratch {
+  visited: Uint32Array;
+  stack: TileRef[];
+  /** Current generation — advance via bumpTraversalGeneration(), not directly. */
+  gen: number;
+}
+
+const scratches = new WeakMap<Game, TileTraversalScratch>();
+
+export function tileTraversalScratch(game: Game): TileTraversalScratch {
+  const totalTiles = game.width() * game.height();
+  let scratch = scratches.get(game);
+  if (!scratch || scratch.visited.length < totalTiles) {
+    scratch = { visited: new Uint32Array(totalTiles), stack: [], gen: 0 };
+    scratches.set(game, scratch);
+  }
+  return scratch;
+}
+
+/** Starts a new traversal pass and returns its generation stamp. */
+export function bumpTraversalGeneration(scratch: TileTraversalScratch): number {
+  scratch.gen++;
+  if (scratch.gen === 0xffffffff) {
+    scratch.visited.fill(0);
+    scratch.gen = 1;
+  }
+  return scratch.gen;
+}

src/core/pathfinding/PathFinderStepper.ts

@@ -18,7 +18,10 @@ export interface StepperConfig<T> {
  * Generic over any PathFinder<T> implementation.
  */
 export class PathFinderStepper<T> implements SteppingPathFinder<T> {
-  private path: T[] | null = null;
+  // Numeric paths (TileRefs) are stored as a Uint32Array: steppers hold their
+  // whole path for the unit's entire journey, and paths across large maps run
+  // to thousands of nodes, so halving the per-node size matters in aggregate.
+  private path: T[] | Uint32Array | null = null;
   private pathIndex = 0;
   private lastTo: T | null = null;
 
@@ -58,24 +61,29 @@ export class PathFinderStepper<T> implements SteppingPathFinder<T> {
 
     // Compute path if not cached
     if (this.path === null) {
+      let path: T[] | null;
       try {
-        this.path = this.finder.findPath(from, to);
+        path = this.finder.findPath(from, to);
       } catch (err) {
         console.error("PathFinder threw an error during findPath", err);
         return { status: PathStatus.NOT_FOUND };
       }
 
-      if (this.path === null) {
+      if (path === null) {
         return { status: PathStatus.NOT_FOUND };
       }
 
+      this.path =
+        path.length > 0 && typeof path[0] === "number"
+          ? new Uint32Array(path as number[])
+          : path;
       this.pathIndex = 0;
-      if (this.path.length > 0 && this.config.equals(this.path[0], from)) {
+      if (path.length > 0 && this.config.equals(path[0], from)) {
         this.pathIndex = 1;
       }
     }
 
-    const expectedPos = this.path[this.pathIndex - 1];
+    const expectedPos = this.path[this.pathIndex - 1] as T;
     if (this.pathIndex > 0 && !this.config.equals(from, expectedPos)) {
       this.invalidate();
       this.lastTo = to;
@@ -88,7 +96,7 @@ export class PathFinderStepper<T> implements SteppingPathFinder<T> {
     }
 
     // Return next step
-    const nextNode = this.path[this.pathIndex];
+    const nextNode = this.path[this.pathIndex] as T;
     this.pathIndex++;
 
     return { status: PathStatus.NEXT, node: nextNode };

src/core/pathfinding/algorithms/ConnectedComponents.ts

@@ -15,7 +15,9 @@ export class ConnectedComponents {
   private readonly height: number;
   private readonly numTiles: number;
   private readonly lastRowStart: number;
-  private readonly queue: Int32Array;
+  // Flood-fill work queue; exists only while initialize() runs — a
+  // numTiles-sized Int32Array is ~8 MB per instance on large maps.
+  private queue: Int32Array | null = null;
   private componentIds: Uint8Array | Uint16Array | null = null;
   private _componentSizes: number[] = [];
 
@@ -27,11 +29,11 @@ export class ConnectedComponents {
     this.height = map.height();
     this.numTiles = this.width * this.height;
     this.lastRowStart = (this.height - 1) * this.width;
-    this.queue = new Int32Array(this.numTiles);
   }
 
   initialize(): void {
     DebugSpan.start("ConnectedComponents:initialize");
+    this.queue = new Int32Array(this.numTiles);
     let ids: Uint8Array | Uint16Array = this.createPrefilledIds();
 
     this._componentSizes = [];
@@ -64,6 +66,7 @@ export class ConnectedComponents {
     }
 
     this.componentIds = ids;
+    this.queue = null;
     DebugSpan.end();
   }
 
@@ -148,12 +151,13 @@ export class ConnectedComponents {
     start: number,
     componentId: number,
   ): void {
+    const queue = this.queue!;
     let head = 0;
     let tail = 0;
-    this.queue[tail++] = start;
+    queue[tail++] = start;
 
     while (head < tail) {
-      const seed = this.queue[head++]!;
+      const seed = queue[head++]!;
 
       // Skip if already processed
       if (ids[seed] !== 0) continue;
@@ -184,7 +188,7 @@ export class ConnectedComponents {
         if (x >= this.width) {
           const above = x - this.width;
           if (ids[above] === 0) {
-            this.queue[tail++] = above;
+            queue[tail++] = above;
           }
         }
 
@@ -192,7 +196,7 @@ export class ConnectedComponents {
         if (x < this.lastRowStart) {
           const below = x + this.width;
           if (ids[below] === 0) {
-            this.queue[tail++] = below;
+            queue[tail++] = below;
           }
         }
       }

src/core/pathfinding/spatial/SpatialQuery.ts

@@ -1,5 +1,9 @@
 import { Game, Player, TerraNullius } from "../../game/Game";
 import { TileRef } from "../../game/GameMap";
+import {
+  bumpTraversalGeneration,
+  tileTraversalScratch,
+} from "../../game/TileTraversalScratch";
 import { DebugSpan } from "../../utilities/DebugSpan";
 import { PathFinding } from "../PathFinder";
 import { AStarWaterBounded } from "../algorithms/AStar.WaterBounded";
@@ -8,16 +12,6 @@ type Owner = Player | TerraNullius;
 
 const REFINE_MAX_SEARCH_AREA = 100 * 100;
 
-// Per-game BFS scratch (generation-stamped visited array + reusable stack) so
-// bfsNearest allocates nothing per query. Keyed by game because SpatialQuery
-// instances are created per call site.
-interface BfsScratch {
-  visited: Uint32Array;
-  gen: number;
-  stack: TileRef[];
-}
-const bfsScratches = new WeakMap<Game, BfsScratch>();
-
 export class SpatialQuery {
   private boundedAStar: AStarWaterBounded | null = null;
 
@@ -36,30 +30,14 @@ export class SpatialQuery {
    * Find nearest tile matching predicate using BFS traversal.
    * Uses Manhattan distance filter, ignores terrain barriers.
    */
-  private bfsScratch(): BfsScratch {
-    const map = this.game.map();
-    const totalTiles = map.width() * map.height();
-    let s = bfsScratches.get(this.game);
-    if (!s || s.visited.length < totalTiles) {
-      s = { visited: new Uint32Array(totalTiles), gen: 0, stack: [] };
-      bfsScratches.set(this.game, s);
-    }
-    return s;
-  }
-
   private bfsNearest(
     from: TileRef,
     maxDist: number,
     predicate: (t: TileRef) => boolean,
   ): TileRef | null {
     const map = this.game.map();
-    const scratch = this.bfsScratch();
+    const scratch = tileTraversalScratch(this.game);
-    scratch.gen++;
+    const gen = bumpTraversalGeneration(scratch);
-    if (scratch.gen === 0xffffffff) {
-      scratch.visited.fill(0);
-      scratch.gen = 1;
-    }
-    const gen = scratch.gen;
     const visited = scratch.visited;
     const stack = scratch.stack;
     stack.length = 0;

tests/TileSet.test.ts

@@ -0,0 +1,141 @@
+import { describe, expect, it } from "vitest";
+import { PseudoRandom } from "../src/core/PseudoRandom";
+import { TileSet } from "../src/core/game/TileSet";
+
+describe("TileSet", () => {
+  it("adds, reports membership and size", () => {
+    const s = new TileSet();
+    expect(s.size).toBe(0);
+    expect(s.has(5)).toBe(false);
+    s.add(5);
+    s.add(9);
+    s.add(5); // duplicate
+    expect(s.size).toBe(2);
+    expect(s.has(5)).toBe(true);
+    expect(s.has(9)).toBe(true);
+    expect(s.has(6)).toBe(false);
+  });
+
+  it("deletes and reports whether the value was present", () => {
+    const s = new TileSet([1, 2, 3]);
+    expect(s.delete(2)).toBe(true);
+    expect(s.delete(2)).toBe(false);
+    expect(s.delete(99)).toBe(false);
+    expect(s.size).toBe(2);
+    expect(s.has(2)).toBe(false);
+    expect([...s]).toEqual([1, 3]);
+  });
+
+  it("iterates in insertion order across all iteration surfaces", () => {
+    const values = [42, 7, 100000, 0, 13];
+    const s = new TileSet(values);
+    expect([...s]).toEqual(values);
+    expect(Array.from(s.values())).toEqual(values);
+    const seen: number[] = [];
+    s.forEach((t) => seen.push(t));
+    expect(seen).toEqual(values);
+  });
+
+  it("moves a value to the end on delete + re-add, matching Set", () => {
+    const s = new TileSet([1, 2, 3]);
+    s.delete(1);
+    s.add(1);
+    expect([...s]).toEqual([2, 3, 1]);
+  });
+
+  it("re-adding an existing value does not change its position", () => {
+    const s = new TileSet([1, 2, 3]);
+    s.add(1);
+    expect([...s]).toEqual([1, 2, 3]);
+  });
+
+  it("visits entries added during forEach, matching Set", () => {
+    const s = new TileSet([1, 2]);
+    const seen: number[] = [];
+    s.forEach((t) => {
+      seen.push(t);
+      if (t === 1) s.add(3);
+    });
+    expect(seen).toEqual([1, 2, 3]);
+  });
+
+  it("skips entries deleted during forEach, matching Set", () => {
+    const s = new TileSet([1, 2, 3]);
+    const seen: number[] = [];
+    s.forEach((t) => {
+      seen.push(t);
+      if (t === 1) s.delete(3);
+    });
+    expect(seen).toEqual([1, 2]);
+  });
+
+  it("supports deleting the current entry during iteration", () => {
+    const s = new TileSet([1, 2, 3]);
+    const seen: number[] = [];
+    for (const t of s) {
+      seen.push(t);
+      s.delete(t);
+    }
+    expect(seen).toEqual([1, 2, 3]);
+    expect(s.size).toBe(0);
+  });
+
+  it("preserves order through tombstone compaction", () => {
+    const s = new TileSet();
+    // Interleave adds and deletes well past the compaction thresholds.
+    for (let i = 0; i < 1000; i++) s.add(i);
+    for (let i = 0; i < 1000; i++) {
+      if (i % 3 !== 0) s.delete(i);
+    }
+    for (let i = 2000; i < 2100; i++) s.add(i);
+    const expected: number[] = [];
+    for (let i = 0; i < 1000; i++) {
+      if (i % 3 === 0) expected.push(i);
+    }
+    for (let i = 2000; i < 2100; i++) expected.push(i);
+    expect([...s]).toEqual(expected);
+    expect(s.size).toBe(expected.length);
+    for (const v of expected) expect(s.has(v)).toBe(true);
+    expect(s.has(1)).toBe(false);
+  });
+
+  it("clear empties the set", () => {
+    const s = new TileSet([1, 2, 3]);
+    s.clear();
+    expect(s.size).toBe(0);
+    expect(s.has(1)).toBe(false);
+    expect([...s]).toEqual([]);
+    s.add(7);
+    expect([...s]).toEqual([7]);
+  });
+
+  it("handles large tile refs (up to the 65535x65535 map bound)", () => {
+    const big = 65535 * 65535 - 1;
+    const s = new TileSet([big, 0, big - 1]);
+    expect(s.has(big)).toBe(true);
+    expect([...s]).toEqual([big, 0, big - 1]);
+  });
+
+  it("matches native Set behavior on a randomized operation sequence", () => {
+    const random = new PseudoRandom(12345);
+    const tileSet = new TileSet();
+    const reference = new Set<number>();
+    for (let op = 0; op < 20000; op++) {
+      const value = random.nextInt(0, 500);
+      if (random.chance(3)) {
+        expect(tileSet.delete(value)).toBe(reference.delete(value));
+      } else {
+        tileSet.add(value);
+        reference.add(value);
+      }
+      if (op % 500 === 0) {
+        expect(tileSet.size).toBe(reference.size);
+        expect([...tileSet]).toEqual([...reference]);
+      }
+    }
+    expect([...tileSet]).toEqual([...reference]);
+    for (let v = 0; v < 500; v++) {
+      expect(tileSet.has(v)).toBe(reference.has(v));
+    }
+  });
+});

tests/perf/fullgame/FullGamePerf.ts

@@ -24,8 +24,16 @@
  *                        [--seed perf-default] [--top 30] [--window 1000]
  *                        [--no-cpu-profile] [--no-exec-profile]
  *                        [--no-gc-profile] [--no-alloc-profile]
+ *                        [--footprint] [--snapshot-at 0,2000,12000]
+ *
+ * --footprint records the live heap (used heap after a forced full GC) at
+ * every --window boundary; it requires NODE_OPTIONS=--expose-gc.
+ * --snapshot-at writes .heapsnapshot files at the given game-phase ticks
+ * (0 = right after the spawn phase) for offline attribution; summarize them
+ * with tests/perf/fullgame/HeapSnapshotSummary.ts.
  */
 import fs from "fs";
+import v8 from "node:v8";
 import path from "path";
 import { fileURLToPath } from "url";
 import { Config } from "../../../src/core/configuration/Config";
@@ -47,11 +55,13 @@ import { GameConfig, GameStartInfo } from "../../../src/core/Schemas";
 import { simpleHash } from "../../../src/core/Util";
 import {
   AllocationSampler,
+  FootprintCheckpoint,
   GcTracker,
   HeapSampler,
   HeapWindow,
   summarizeAllocationProfile,
   summarizeGcEvents,
+  takeFootprintCheckpoint,
 } from "./GcProfiler";
 import { NodeGameMapLoader } from "./NodeGameMapLoader";
 import {
@@ -81,6 +91,9 @@ interface Options {
   execProfile: boolean;
   gcProfile: boolean;
   allocProfile: boolean;
+  footprint: boolean;
+  snapshotAt: number[];
+  waterNukes: boolean;
 }
 
 function resolveMap(name: string): GameMapType {
@@ -109,6 +122,9 @@ function parseArgs(argv: string[]): Options {
     execProfile: true,
     gcProfile: true,
     allocProfile: true,
+    footprint: false,
+    snapshotAt: [],
+    waterNukes: false,
   };
   for (let i = 0; i < argv.length; i++) {
     const arg = argv[i];
@@ -154,6 +170,17 @@ function parseArgs(argv: string[]): Options {
       case "--no-alloc-profile":
         opts.allocProfile = false;
         break;
+      case "--footprint":
+        opts.footprint = true;
+        break;
+      case "--snapshot-at":
+        opts.snapshotAt = next()
+          .split(",")
+          .map((v) => parseInt(v, 10));
+        break;
+      case "--water-nukes":
+        opts.waterNukes = true;
+        break;
       default:
         throw new Error(`unknown argument: ${arg}`);
     }
@@ -203,6 +230,7 @@ async function main(): Promise<void> {
     infiniteTroops: false,
     instantBuild: false,
     randomSpawn: false,
+    waterNukes: opts.waterNukes ? true : undefined,
   };
   const gameStart: GameStartInfo = {
     gameID: opts.seed,
@@ -272,6 +300,28 @@ async function main(): Promise<void> {
   gcTracker?.start();
   const heapSampler = opts.gcProfile ? new HeapSampler() : null;
 
+  const footprints: FootprintCheckpoint[] = [];
+  const recordFootprint = (label: string): void => {
+    if (!opts.footprint) return;
+    const cp = takeFootprintCheckpoint(label);
+    if (cp === null) {
+      throw new Error(
+        "--footprint requires the gc() global; run with NODE_OPTIONS=--expose-gc",
+      );
+    }
+    footprints.push(cp);
+  };
+  const snapshotDir = path.join(PROJECT_ROOT, "tests/perf/output");
+  const writeSnapshot = (label: string): void => {
+    fs.mkdirSync(snapshotDir, { recursive: true });
+    const file = path.join(
+      snapshotDir,
+      `fullgame-${opts.map.replace(/\W+/g, "_")}-${opts.seed}-${label}.heapsnapshot`,
+    );
+    console.log(`Writing heap snapshot ${path.relative(PROJECT_ROOT, file)}…`);
+    v8.writeHeapSnapshot(file);
+  };
+
   let turnNumber = 0;
   const runTick = (stats: TickStats): boolean => {
     runner.addTurn({ turnNumber: turnNumber++, intents: [] });
@@ -302,6 +352,10 @@ async function main(): Promise<void> {
   );
 
   heapSampler?.closeWindow("spawn");
+  recordFootprint(`spawn (tick ${game.ticks() - 1})`);
+  if (opts.snapshotAt.includes(0)) {
+    writeSnapshot("tick0");
+  }
 
   // Main game phase, under the CPU profiler and allocation sampler.
   const cpuProfiler = opts.cpuProfile ? new CpuProfiler() : null;
@@ -328,6 +382,10 @@ async function main(): Promise<void> {
     if ((i + 1) % opts.window === 0 || i === opts.ticks - 1) {
       heapSampler?.closeWindow(`${windowStartTick}-${game.ticks() - 1}`);
       windowStartTick = game.ticks();
+      recordFootprint(`tick ${game.ticks() - 1}`);
+    }
+    if (opts.snapshotAt.includes(i + 1)) {
+      writeSnapshot(`tick${i + 1}`);
     }
   }
   const gamePhaseMs = performance.now() - gameStart_;
@@ -372,6 +430,23 @@ async function main(): Promise<void> {
       summary.slowest.map((s) => `#${s.tick} (${fmtMs(s.ms)}ms)`).join(", "),
   );
 
+  if (footprints.length > 0) {
+    console.log(`\n--- Live-heap footprint (after forced full GC) ---`);
+    console.log(
+      table(
+        ["checkpoint", "live MB", "total MB", "ext MB", "arrbuf MB", "rss MB"],
+        footprints.map((cp) => [
+          cp.label,
+          fmtMB(cp.liveHeapBytes),
+          fmtMB(cp.totalHeapBytes),
+          fmtMB(cp.externalBytes),
+          fmtMB(cp.arrayBuffersBytes),
+          fmtMB(cp.rssBytes),
+        ]),
+      ),
+    );
+  }
+
   if (opts.execProfile) {
     console.log(`\n--- Time by Execution class ---`);
     const rows = execProfiler.report();

tests/perf/fullgame/GcProfiler.ts

@@ -274,3 +274,41 @@ export function summarizeAllocationProfile(
   sites.sort((a, b) => b.selfBytes - a.selfBytes);
   return { sites, totalBytes };
 }
+
+// ── Live-heap footprint checkpoints ──
+
+export interface FootprintCheckpoint {
+  label: string;
+  /** used_heap_size after a forced full GC — the live set. */
+  liveHeapBytes: number;
+  totalHeapBytes: number;
+  externalBytes: number;
+  arrayBuffersBytes: number;
+  rssBytes: number;
+}
+
+/**
+ * Forces a full GC (twice, so objects freed by finalizers in the first pass
+ * are also collected) and returns the resulting heap statistics. Requires the
+ * process to run with --expose-gc; returns null otherwise.
+ */
+export function takeFootprintCheckpoint(
+  label: string,
+): FootprintCheckpoint | null {
+  const gc = (globalThis as { gc?: () => void }).gc;
+  if (gc === undefined) {
+    return null;
+  }
+  gc();
+  gc();
+  const heap = v8.getHeapStatistics();
+  const mem = process.memoryUsage();
+  return {
+    label,
+    liveHeapBytes: heap.used_heap_size,
+    totalHeapBytes: heap.total_heap_size,
+    externalBytes: mem.external,
+    arrayBuffersBytes: mem.arrayBuffers,
+    rssBytes: mem.rss,
+  };
+}

tests/perf/fullgame/HeapSnapshotRetainers.ts

@@ -0,0 +1,189 @@
+/**
+ * Retainer attribution for a V8 .heapsnapshot: aggregates every node's self
+ * size under a label derived from its retainer chain — the nearest ancestor
+ * with a project-meaningful constructor name plus the property path from it
+ * (e.g. "PlayerImpl._tiles.table"). Also lists the largest individual nodes
+ * with their full retainer chains.
+ *
+ * Loads the whole snapshot with JSON.parse, so only suitable for snapshots
+ * under V8's max string length (~500 MB); use HeapSnapshotSummary.ts for a
+ * flat by-type summary of bigger files.
+ *
+ * Usage:
+ *   npx tsx tests/perf/fullgame/HeapSnapshotRetainers.ts <file.heapsnapshot> [top]
+ */
+import fs from "fs";
+
+// Constructor names that identify a container, not an owner — the walk
+// continues past these to find whose field the container is.
+const GENERIC_NAMES = new Set([
+  "",
+  "Object",
+  "Array",
+  "Set",
+  "Map",
+  "WeakMap",
+  "WeakSet",
+  "ArrayBuffer",
+  "SharedArrayBuffer",
+  "DataView",
+  "Int8Array",
+  "Uint8Array",
+  "Uint8ClampedArray",
+  "Int16Array",
+  "Uint16Array",
+  "Int32Array",
+  "Uint32Array",
+  "Float32Array",
+  "Float64Array",
+  "BigInt64Array",
+  "BigUint64Array",
+]);
+
+function main(): void {
+  const file = process.argv[2];
+  const top = parseInt(process.argv[3] ?? "40", 10);
+  const snap = JSON.parse(fs.readFileSync(file, "utf8")) as {
+    snapshot: {
+      meta: {
+        node_fields: string[];
+        node_types: (string[] | string)[];
+        edge_fields: string[];
+        edge_types: (string[] | string)[];
+      };
+      node_count: number;
+      edge_count: number;
+    };
+    nodes: number[];
+    edges: number[];
+    strings: string[];
+  };
+
+  const { meta } = snap.snapshot;
+  const NF = meta.node_fields.length;
+  const N_TYPE = meta.node_fields.indexOf("type");
+  const N_NAME = meta.node_fields.indexOf("name");
+  const N_SIZE = meta.node_fields.indexOf("self_size");
+  const N_EDGES = meta.node_fields.indexOf("edge_count");
+  const nodeTypes = meta.node_types[N_TYPE] as string[];
+  const EF = meta.edge_fields.length;
+  const E_TYPE = meta.edge_fields.indexOf("type");
+  const E_NAME = meta.edge_fields.indexOf("name_or_index");
+  const E_TO = meta.edge_fields.indexOf("to_node");
+  const edgeTypes = meta.edge_types[E_TYPE] as string[];
+  const WEAK_EDGE = edgeTypes.indexOf("weak");
+  const ELEMENT_EDGE = edgeTypes.indexOf("element");
+  const HIDDEN_EDGE = edgeTypes.indexOf("hidden");
+
+  const { nodes, edges, strings } = snap;
+  const nodeCount = snap.snapshot.node_count;
+
+  // First retainer of each node (prefer non-weak edges), plus the edge name.
+  const retainer = new Int32Array(nodeCount).fill(-1);
+  const retainerWeak = new Uint8Array(nodeCount);
+  const retainerEdge = new Int32Array(nodeCount).fill(-1); // string idx or -1
+  let edgeIdx = 0;
+  for (let src = 0; src < nodeCount; src++) {
+    const count = nodes[src * NF + N_EDGES];
+    for (let e = 0; e < count; e++, edgeIdx += EF) {
+      const to = edges[edgeIdx + E_TO] / NF;
+      const type = edges[edgeIdx + E_TYPE];
+      const weak = type === WEAK_EDGE ? 1 : 0;
+      if (retainer[to] === -1 || (retainerWeak[to] === 1 && weak === 0)) {
+        retainer[to] = src;
+        retainerWeak[to] = weak;
+        retainerEdge[to] =
+          type === ELEMENT_EDGE || type === HIDDEN_EDGE
+            ? -2 // numeric index — label as []
+            : edges[edgeIdx + E_NAME];
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  const nodeName = (i: number): string => strings[nodes[i * NF + N_NAME]];
+  const nodeType = (i: number): string => nodeTypes[nodes[i * NF + N_TYPE]];
+  const edgeLabel = (i: number): string =>
+    retainerEdge[i] === -2 ? "[]" : (strings[retainerEdge[i]] ?? "?");
+
+  // Label a node by its nearest non-generic named ancestor plus the property
+  // path from that ancestor (capped, deepest segments dropped first).
+  const labelOf = (i: number): string => {
+    const segments: string[] = [];
+    let cur = i;
+    for (let depth = 0; depth < 12; depth++) {
+      const parent = retainer[cur];
+      if (parent === -1) return `(root) ${segments.join(".")}`;
+      const t = nodeType(parent);
+      const name = nodeName(parent);
+      if (
+        (t === "object" || t === "closure" || t === "native") &&
+        !GENERIC_NAMES.has(name)
+      ) {
+        return `${name}.${segments.slice(0, 3).join(".")}`;
+      }
+      if (t === "synthetic") {
+        return `(${name}) ${segments.slice(0, 3).join(".")}`;
+      }
+      segments.unshift(edgeLabel(cur));
+      cur = parent;
+    }
+    return `(deep) ${segments.slice(0, 3).join(".")}`;
+  };
+
+  interface Bucket {
+    bytes: number;
+    count: number;
+  }
+  const buckets = new Map<string, Bucket>();
+  let totalBytes = 0;
+  const big: { i: number; size: number }[] = [];
+  for (let i = 0; i < nodeCount; i++) {
+    const size = nodes[i * NF + N_SIZE];
+    if (size === 0) continue;
+    totalBytes += size;
+    const t = nodeType(i);
+    // Group bulk data types under their retainers; everything else by type.
+    const key =
+      t === "code" || t === "string" || t === "concatenated string"
+        ? `(all ${t})`
+        : labelOf(i);
+    const b = buckets.get(key);
+    if (b) {
+      b.bytes += size;
+      b.count++;
+    } else {
+      buckets.set(key, { bytes: size, count: 1 });
+    }
+    if (size >= 128 * 1024) {
+      big.push({ i, size });
+    }
+  }
+
+  const fmtMB = (bytes: number): string => (bytes / 1024 / 1024).toFixed(2);
+
+  console.log(`${file}\nlive: ${fmtMB(totalBytes)} MB\n`);
+  console.log(`--- Top ${top} retainer groups by self size ---`);
+  const sorted = [...buckets.entries()].sort((a, b) => b[1].bytes - a[1].bytes);
+  for (const [label, b] of sorted.slice(0, top)) {
+    console.log(
+      `${fmtMB(b.bytes).padStart(9)} MB  ${String(b.count).padStart(8)}  ${label}`,
+    );
+  }
+
+  console.log(`\n--- Nodes ≥128KB with retainer chains ---`);
+  big.sort((a, b) => b.size - a.size);
+  for (const { i, size } of big.slice(0, top)) {
+    const chain: string[] = [];
+    let cur = i;
+    for (let depth = 0; depth < 8 && retainer[cur] !== -1; depth++) {
+      const parent = retainer[cur];
+      chain.push(`${nodeName(parent) || nodeType(parent)}.${edgeLabel(cur)}`);
+      cur = parent;
+    }
+    console.log(
+      `${fmtMB(size).padStart(9)} MB  ${nodeType(i)} ${nodeName(i)}  ←  ${chain.join("  ←  ")}`,
+    );
+  }
+}
+
+main();

tests/perf/fullgame/HeapSnapshotSummary.ts

@@ -0,0 +1,250 @@
+/**
+ * Summarizes a V8 .heapsnapshot file: total live bytes and the top heap
+ * consumers grouped by (node type, constructor/name), by self size.
+ *
+ * Snapshot files from a large heap are multi-GB JSON — far beyond V8's max
+ * string length — so this streams the file and parses just the `nodes` array
+ * (flat integers) and the `strings` table with a byte-level scanner.
+ *
+ * Usage:
+ *   npx tsx tests/perf/fullgame/HeapSnapshotSummary.ts <file.heapsnapshot> [top]
+ */
+import fs from "fs";
+
+interface Group {
+  typeIdx: number;
+  nameIdx: number; // -1 when the type's node names are per-instance content
+  count: number;
+  bytes: number;
+}
+
+// Node types whose per-node name is instance content (string payloads,
+// function source positions, ...) rather than a meaningful grouping key.
+const CONTENT_NAMED_TYPES = new Set([
+  "string",
+  "concatenated string",
+  "sliced string",
+  "number",
+  "bigint",
+  "symbol",
+  "regexp",
+  "code",
+]);
+
+async function main(): Promise<void> {
+  const file = process.argv[2];
+  const top = parseInt(process.argv[3] ?? "40", 10);
+  if (!file) {
+    console.error(
+      "usage: npx tsx tests/perf/fullgame/HeapSnapshotSummary.ts <file.heapsnapshot> [top]",
+    );
+    process.exit(1);
+  }
+
+  // ── Meta: parse the small "snapshot" header object from the file prefix ──
+  const fd = fs.openSync(file, "r");
+  const prefixBuf = Buffer.alloc(1 << 20);
+  const prefixLen = fs.readSync(fd, prefixBuf, 0, prefixBuf.length, 0);
+  fs.closeSync(fd);
+  const prefix = prefixBuf.subarray(0, prefixLen).toString("utf8");
+  const nodesKey = '"nodes":[';
+  const nodesIdx = prefix.indexOf(nodesKey);
+  if (nodesIdx < 0) {
+    throw new Error(`"nodes" array not found in the first 1MB of ${file}`);
+  }
+  const metaJson = prefix.slice(0, prefix.lastIndexOf(",", nodesIdx)) + "}";
+  const meta = JSON.parse(metaJson).snapshot.meta as {
+    node_fields: string[];
+    node_types: (string[] | string)[];
+  };
+  const fieldCount = meta.node_fields.length;
+  const typeField = meta.node_fields.indexOf("type");
+  const nameField = meta.node_fields.indexOf("name");
+  const sizeField = meta.node_fields.indexOf("self_size");
+  const typeNames = meta.node_types[typeField] as string[];
+  const contentNamedTypeIdx = new Set(
+    typeNames.flatMap((t, i) => (CONTENT_NAMED_TYPES.has(t) ? [i] : [])),
+  );
+
+  // ── Stream pass: aggregate the nodes array, then collect needed strings ──
+  const groups = new Map<number, Group>();
+  const groupKey = (typeIdx: number, nameIdx: number) =>
+    typeIdx * 0x100000000 + nameIdx + 1; // +1 so nameIdx -1 maps to 0
+
+  let totalBytes = 0;
+  let totalNodes = 0;
+
+  // Scanner state.
+  const SEEK_STRINGS = 0; // between the nodes array and the strings table
+  const IN_NODES = 1;
+  const STRINGS_BETWEEN = 2; // inside strings array, between tokens
+  const IN_STRING = 3;
+  const DONE = 4;
+  let state = IN_NODES;
+
+  // IN_NODES state: integer accumulator + current node's fields.
+  let cur = 0;
+  let hasCur = false;
+  const nodeVals = new Array<number>(fieldCount).fill(0);
+  let fieldIdx = 0;
+
+  const finishNumber = (): void => {
+    if (!hasCur) return;
+    nodeVals[fieldIdx] = cur;
+    cur = 0;
+    hasCur = false;
+    if (++fieldIdx === fieldCount) {
+      fieldIdx = 0;
+      totalNodes++;
+      const size = nodeVals[sizeField];
+      totalBytes += size;
+      const typeIdx = nodeVals[typeField];
+      const nameIdx = contentNamedTypeIdx.has(typeIdx)
+        ? -1
+        : nodeVals[nameField];
+      const key = groupKey(typeIdx, nameIdx);
+      const g = groups.get(key);
+      if (g) {
+        g.count++;
+        g.bytes += size;
+      } else {
+        groups.set(key, { typeIdx, nameIdx, count: 1, bytes: size });
+      }
+    }
+  };
+
+  // SEEK_STRINGS state: match the `"strings":[` marker across chunk borders.
+  const stringsKey = Buffer.from('"strings":[');
+  let matchPos = 0;
+
+  // IN_STRING state: raw token bytes (with quotes) for JSON.parse.
+  let stringIdx = 0;
+  let escape = false;
+  let tokenChunks: Buffer[] = [];
+  let tokenStart = -1; // start of current token in current chunk, if wanted
+  let wantToken = false;
+  const names = new Map<number, string>();
+  const neededNames = new Set<number>();
+
+  const stream = fs.createReadStream(file, {
+    start: nodesIdx + nodesKey.length,
+    highWaterMark: 8 << 20,
+  });
+
+  for await (const chunk of stream as AsyncIterable<Buffer>) {
+    for (let i = 0; i < chunk.length; i++) {
+      const b = chunk[i];
+      switch (state) {
+        case IN_NODES:
+          if (b >= 0x30 && b <= 0x39) {
+            cur = cur * 10 + (b - 0x30);
+            hasCur = true;
+          } else {
+            finishNumber();
+            if (b === 0x5d) {
+              // "]" — end of nodes; now that groups are final, we know which
+              // string-table entries we need.
+              for (const g of groups.values()) {
+                if (g.nameIdx >= 0) neededNames.add(g.nameIdx);
+              }
+              state = SEEK_STRINGS;
+            }
+          }
+          break;
+        case SEEK_STRINGS:
+          if (b === stringsKey[matchPos]) {
+            if (++matchPos === stringsKey.length) {
+              state = STRINGS_BETWEEN;
+            }
+          } else {
+            matchPos = b === stringsKey[0] ? 1 : 0;
+          }
+          break;
+        case STRINGS_BETWEEN:
+          if (b === 0x22) {
+            state = IN_STRING;
+            escape = false;
+            wantToken = neededNames.has(stringIdx);
+            tokenChunks = [];
+            tokenStart = wantToken ? i : -1;
+          } else if (b === 0x5d) {
+            state = DONE;
+          }
+          break;
+        case IN_STRING:
+          if (escape) {
+            escape = false;
+          } else if (b === 0x5c) {
+            escape = true;
+          } else if (b === 0x22) {
+            if (wantToken) {
+              tokenChunks.push(chunk.subarray(tokenStart, i + 1));
+              names.set(
+                stringIdx,
+                JSON.parse(Buffer.concat(tokenChunks).toString("utf8")),
+              );
+              tokenChunks = [];
+            }
+            stringIdx++;
+            state = STRINGS_BETWEEN;
+          }
+          break;
+        case DONE:
+          break;
+      }
+    }
+    // Carry an in-progress wanted token across the chunk border.
+    if (state === IN_STRING && wantToken) {
+      tokenChunks.push(chunk.subarray(Math.max(tokenStart, 0)));
+      tokenStart = 0;
+    }
+    if (state === DONE) break;
+  }
+
+  // ── Report ──
+  const fmtMB = (bytes: number): string => (bytes / 1024 / 1024).toFixed(2);
+  const all = [...groups.values()].sort((a, b) => b.bytes - a.bytes);
+
+  console.log(
+    `${file}\nlive: ${fmtMB(totalBytes)} MB across ${totalNodes} nodes\n`,
+  );
+
+  const byType = new Map<number, { count: number; bytes: number }>();
+  for (const g of all) {
+    const t = byType.get(g.typeIdx) ?? { count: 0, bytes: 0 };
+    t.count += g.count;
+    t.bytes += g.bytes;
+    byType.set(g.typeIdx, t);
+  }
+  console.log("--- By node type ---");
+  for (const [typeIdx, t] of [...byType.entries()].sort(
+    (a, b) => b[1].bytes - a[1].bytes,
+  )) {
+    console.log(
+      `${fmtMB(t.bytes).padStart(10)} MB  ${String(t.count).padStart(9)}  ${typeNames[typeIdx]}`,
+    );
+  }
+
+  console.log(`\n--- Top ${top} by (type, name) self size ---`);
+  console.log(
+    `${"MB".padStart(10)}  ${"%".padStart(5)}  ${"count".padStart(9)}  group`,
+  );
+  for (const g of all.slice(0, top)) {
+    const name =
+      g.nameIdx < 0
+        ? `(${typeNames[g.typeIdx]} data)`
+        : (names.get(g.nameIdx) ?? `<string #${g.nameIdx}>`);
+    console.log(
+      `${fmtMB(g.bytes).padStart(10)}  ${((g.bytes * 100) / totalBytes)
+        .toFixed(1)
+        .padStart(
+          5,
+        )}  ${String(g.count).padStart(9)}  ${typeNames[g.typeIdx]} ${name}`,
+    );
+  }
+}
+
+main().catch((err) => {
+  console.error(err);
+  process.exit(1);
+});