diff --git a/src/client/graphics/layers/TerritoryLayer.ts b/src/client/graphics/layers/TerritoryLayer.ts
index 802bc5b90..8cdd3461f 100644
--- a/src/client/graphics/layers/TerritoryLayer.ts
+++ b/src/client/graphics/layers/TerritoryLayer.ts
@@ -1,41 +1,21 @@
-import { PriorityQueue } from "@datastructures-js/priority-queue";
 import { Colord } from "colord";
 import { Theme } from "../../../core/configuration/Config";
 import { EventBus } from "../../../core/EventBus";
-import {
-  ColoredTeams,
-  PlayerType,
-  Team,
-  UnitType,
-} from "../../../core/game/Game";
+import { ColoredTeams, PlayerType, Team } from "../../../core/game/Game";
 import { euclDistFN, TileRef } from "../../../core/game/GameMap";
 import { GameUpdateType } from "../../../core/game/GameUpdates";
 import { GameView, PlayerView } from "../../../core/game/GameView";
 import { UserSettings } from "../../../core/game/UserSettings";
-import { PseudoRandom } from "../../../core/PseudoRandom";
 import {
   AlternateViewEvent,
   ContextMenuEvent,
-  DragEvent,
   MouseOverEvent,
 } from "../../InputHandler";
 import { FrameProfiler } from "../FrameProfiler";
 import { TransformHandler } from "../TransformHandler";
 import { Layer } from "./Layer";
-import {
-  CanvasTerritoryRenderer,
-  TerritoryRendererStrategy,
-  WebglTerritoryRenderer,
-} from "./TerritoryRenderers";
 import { TerritoryWebGLRenderer } from "./TerritoryWebGLRenderer";
 
-type TileTransition = {
-  startTime: number;
-  durationMs: number;
-  highlight: boolean;
-  lastProgressByte: number;
-};
-
 export class TerritoryLayer implements Layer {
   profileName(): string {
     return "TerritoryLayer:renderLayer";
@@ -46,13 +26,6 @@ export class TerritoryLayer implements Layer {
 
   private cachedTerritoryPatternsEnabled: boolean | undefined;
 
-  private tileToRenderQueue: PriorityQueue<{
-    tile: TileRef;
-    lastUpdate: number;
-  }> = new PriorityQueue((a, b) => {
-    return a.lastUpdate - b.lastUpdate;
-  });
-  private random = new PseudoRandom(123);
   private theme: Theme;
 
   // Used for spawn highlighting
@@ -60,22 +33,19 @@ export class TerritoryLayer implements Layer {
   private highlightContext: CanvasRenderingContext2D;
 
   private highlightedTerritory: PlayerView | null = null;
-  private territoryRenderer: TerritoryRendererStrategy | null = null;
+  private territoryRenderer: TerritoryWebGLRenderer | null = null;
 
   private alternativeView = false;
-  private lastDragTime = 0;
-  private nodrawDragDuration = 200;
   private lastMousePosition: { x: number; y: number } | null = null;
 
-  private refreshRate = 10; //refresh every 10ms
-  private lastRefresh = 0;
-
   private lastFocusedPlayer: PlayerView | null = null;
   private lastMyPlayerSmallId: number | null = null;
   private lastPaletteSignature: string | null = null;
-  private tileTransitions: Map<TileRef, TileTransition> = new Map();
-  private transitionHighlightTiles: TileRef[] = [];
-  private transitionHighlightAlphas: number[] = [];
+  private transitionActive = false;
+  private transitionEpoch = 1;
+  private transitionProgress = 1;
+  private transitionStartTime = 0;
+  private transitionDurationMs = 100;
   private lastGameTick = 0;
   private lastTickTime = 0;
   private lastTickDurationMs = 100;
@@ -88,23 +58,16 @@ export class TerritoryLayer implements Layer {
     this.theme = game.config().theme();
     this.cachedTerritoryPatternsEnabled = undefined;
     this.lastMyPlayerSmallId = game.myPlayer()?.smallID() ?? null;
-    this.lastTickTime = Date.now();
+    this.lastTickTime = this.nowMs();
   }
 
   shouldTransform(): boolean {
     return true;
   }
 
-  async paintPlayerBorder(player: PlayerView) {
-    const tiles = await player.borderTiles();
-    tiles.borderTiles.forEach((tile: TileRef) => {
-      this.paintTerritory(tile, true); // Immediately paint the tile instead of enqueueing
-    });
-  }
-
   tick() {
     const tickProfile = FrameProfiler.start();
-    const now = Date.now();
+    const now = this.nowMs();
     this.updateTickTiming(now);
     if (this.game.inSpawnPhase()) {
       this.spawnHighlight();
@@ -117,38 +80,9 @@ export class TerritoryLayer implements Layer {
     }
     this.refreshPaletteIfNeeded();
 
-    this.game.recentlyUpdatedTiles().forEach((t) => {
-      this.enqueueTile(t);
-      // Immediately clear territory overlay for water tiles so old
-      // borders/territory don't persist visually (e.g. after nuke turns land to water)
-      if (this.game.isWater(t)) {
-        this.clearTile(t);
-      }
-    });
+    this.game.recentlyUpdatedTiles().forEach((t) => this.markTile(t));
     this.beginTileTransitions(this.game.recentlyUpdatedOwnerTiles(), now);
     const updates = this.game.updatesSinceLastTick();
-    const unitUpdates = updates !== null ? updates[GameUpdateType.Unit] : [];
-    unitUpdates.forEach((update) => {
-      if (update.unitType === UnitType.DefensePost) {
-        // Only update borders if the defense post is not under construction
-        if (update.underConstruction) {
-          return; // Skip barrier creation while under construction
-        }
-
-        const tile = update.pos;
-        this.game
-          .bfs(tile, euclDistFN(tile, this.game.config().defensePostRange()))
-          .forEach((t) => {
-            if (
-              this.game.isBorder(t) &&
-              (this.game.ownerID(t) === update.ownerID ||
-                this.game.ownerID(t) === update.lastOwnerID)
-            ) {
-              this.enqueueTile(t);
-            }
-          });
-      }
-    });
 
     // Detect alliance mutations
     const myPlayer = this.game.myPlayer();
@@ -156,7 +90,7 @@ export class TerritoryLayer implements Layer {
       updates?.[GameUpdateType.BrokeAlliance]?.forEach((update) => {
         const territory = this.game.playerBySmallID(update.betrayedID);
         if (territory && territory instanceof PlayerView) {
-          this.redrawBorder(territory);
+          this.territoryRenderer?.refreshPalette();
         }
       });
 
@@ -172,7 +106,7 @@ export class TerritoryLayer implements Layer {
               : update.request.requestorID;
           const territory = this.game.playerBySmallID(territoryId);
           if (territory && territory instanceof PlayerView) {
-            this.redrawBorder(territory);
+            this.territoryRenderer?.refreshPalette();
           }
         }
       });
@@ -186,23 +120,14 @@ export class TerritoryLayer implements Layer {
           player.id() === myPlayer?.id() ||
           embargoed.id() === myPlayer?.id()
         ) {
-          this.redrawBorder(player, embargoed);
+          this.territoryRenderer?.refreshPalette();
         }
       });
     }
 
     const focusedPlayer = this.game.focusedPlayer();
     if (focusedPlayer !== this.lastFocusedPlayer) {
-      if (this.territoryRenderer?.isWebGL()) {
-        this.redraw();
-      } else {
-        if (this.lastFocusedPlayer) {
-          this.paintPlayerBorder(this.lastFocusedPlayer);
-        }
-        if (focusedPlayer) {
-          this.paintPlayerBorder(focusedPlayer);
-        }
-      }
+      this.redraw();
       this.lastFocusedPlayer = focusedPlayer;
     }
 
@@ -374,10 +299,6 @@ export class TerritoryLayer implements Layer {
         this.hoverHighlightOptions(),
       );
     });
-    this.eventBus.on(DragEvent, () => {
-      // TODO: consider re-enabling this on mobile or low end devices for smoother dragging.
-      // this.lastDragTime = Date.now();
-    });
     this.redraw();
   }
 
@@ -387,13 +308,7 @@ export class TerritoryLayer implements Layer {
   }
 
   private updateHighlightedTerritory() {
-    const supportsHover =
-      this.alternativeView || this.territoryRenderer?.isWebGL() === true;
-    if (!supportsHover) {
-      return;
-    }
-
-    if (!this.lastMousePosition) {
+    if (!this.lastMousePosition || !this.territoryRenderer) {
       return;
     }
 
@@ -415,20 +330,9 @@ export class TerritoryLayer implements Layer {
     }
 
     if (previousTerritory?.id() !== this.highlightedTerritory?.id()) {
-      if (this.territoryRenderer?.isWebGL()) {
-        this.territoryRenderer.setHover(
-          this.highlightedTerritory?.smallID() ?? null,
-        );
-      } else {
-        const territories: PlayerView[] = [];
-        if (previousTerritory) {
-          territories.push(previousTerritory);
-        }
-        if (this.highlightedTerritory) {
-          territories.push(this.highlightedTerritory);
-        }
-        this.redrawBorder(...territories);
-      }
+      this.territoryRenderer.setHoveredPlayerId(
+        this.highlightedTerritory?.smallID() ?? null,
+      );
     }
   }
 
@@ -445,14 +349,10 @@ export class TerritoryLayer implements Layer {
   }
 
   redraw() {
-    console.log("redrew territory layer");
     this.lastMyPlayerSmallId = this.game.myPlayer()?.smallID() ?? null;
     this.cachedTerritoryPatternsEnabled = this.userSettings.territoryPatterns();
     this.configureRenderers();
-    this.tileTransitions.clear();
-    this.transitionHighlightTiles.length = 0;
-    this.transitionHighlightAlphas.length = 0;
-    this.territoryRenderer?.redraw();
+    this.transitionActive = false;
 
     // Add a second canvas for highlights
     this.highlightCanvas = document.createElement("canvas");
@@ -463,34 +363,28 @@ export class TerritoryLayer implements Layer {
     this.highlightContext = highlightContext;
     this.highlightCanvas.width = this.game.width();
     this.highlightCanvas.height = this.game.height();
-
-    this.game.forEachTile((t) => {
-      this.paintTerritory(t);
-    });
   }
 
   private configureRenderers() {
-    this.territoryRenderer = null;
-
-    const { renderer } = TerritoryWebGLRenderer.create(this.game, this.theme);
-    if (renderer) {
-      const strategy = new WebglTerritoryRenderer(renderer, this.game);
-      strategy.setAlternativeView(this.alternativeView);
-      strategy.markAllDirty();
-      strategy.refreshPalette();
-      strategy.setHoverHighlightOptions(this.hoverHighlightOptions());
-      strategy.setHover(this.highlightedTerritory?.smallID() ?? null);
-      this.territoryRenderer = strategy;
-      this.lastPaletteSignature = this.computePaletteSignature();
-      return;
+    const { renderer, reason } = TerritoryWebGLRenderer.create(
+      this.game,
+      this.theme,
+    );
+    if (!renderer) {
+      throw new Error(reason ?? "WebGL2 is required for territory rendering.");
     }
 
-    this.territoryRenderer = new CanvasTerritoryRenderer(this.game, this.theme);
+    this.territoryRenderer = renderer;
     this.territoryRenderer.setAlternativeView(this.alternativeView);
+    this.territoryRenderer.markAllDirty();
+    this.territoryRenderer.refreshPalette();
     this.territoryRenderer.setHoverHighlightOptions(
       this.hoverHighlightOptions(),
     );
-    this.lastPaletteSignature = null;
+    this.territoryRenderer.setHoveredPlayerId(
+      this.highlightedTerritory?.smallID() ?? null,
+    );
+    this.lastPaletteSignature = this.computePaletteSignature();
   }
 
   private hoverHighlightOptions() {
@@ -514,58 +408,26 @@ export class TerritoryLayer implements Layer {
     };
   }
 
-  redrawBorder(...players: PlayerView[]) {
-    const shouldRefreshPalette = this.territoryRenderer?.isWebGL() ?? false;
-    return Promise.all(
-      players.map(async (player) => {
-        const tiles = await player.borderTiles();
-        tiles.borderTiles.forEach((tile: TileRef) => {
-          this.paintTerritory(tile, true);
-        });
-      }),
-    ).then(() => {
-      if (shouldRefreshPalette) {
-        this.territoryRenderer?.refreshPalette();
-      }
-    });
-  }
-
   renderLayer(context: CanvasRenderingContext2D) {
-    const now = Date.now();
-    const canRefresh =
-      now > this.lastDragTime + this.nodrawDragDuration &&
-      now > this.lastRefresh + this.refreshRate;
-    if (canRefresh) {
-      this.lastRefresh = now;
-      const renderTerritoryStart = FrameProfiler.start();
-      this.renderTerritory();
-      FrameProfiler.end("TerritoryLayer:renderTerritory", renderTerritoryStart);
+    if (!this.territoryRenderer) {
+      return;
     }
-
+    const now = this.nowMs();
     this.updateTransitionProgress(now);
 
-    const [topLeft, bottomRight] = this.transformHandler.screenBoundingRect();
-    const vx0 = Math.max(0, topLeft.x);
-    const vy0 = Math.max(0, topLeft.y);
-    const vx1 = Math.min(this.game.width() - 1, bottomRight.x);
-    const vy1 = Math.min(this.game.height() - 1, bottomRight.y);
+    const renderTerritoryStart = FrameProfiler.start();
+    this.territoryRenderer.render();
+    FrameProfiler.end("TerritoryLayer:renderTerritory", renderTerritoryStart);
 
-    const w = vx1 - vx0 + 1;
-    const h = vy1 - vy0 + 1;
-    if (this.territoryRenderer) {
-      this.territoryRenderer.render(
-        context,
-        {
-          x: vx0,
-          y: vy0,
-          width: w,
-          height: h,
-        },
-        canRefresh,
-      );
-    }
-
-    this.drawTransitionHighlights(context, now);
+    const drawTerritoryStart = FrameProfiler.start();
+    context.drawImage(
+      this.territoryRenderer.canvas,
+      -this.game.width() / 2,
+      -this.game.height() / 2,
+      this.game.width(),
+      this.game.height(),
+    );
+    FrameProfiler.end("TerritoryLayer:drawTerritoryCanvas", drawTerritoryStart);
 
     if (this.game.inSpawnPhase()) {
       const highlightDrawStart = FrameProfiler.start();
@@ -583,73 +445,11 @@ export class TerritoryLayer implements Layer {
     }
   }
 
-  renderTerritory() {
-    if (!this.territoryRenderer) {
-      return;
-    }
-    let numToRender = this.tileToRenderQueue.size();
-    if (numToRender === 0) {
-      return;
-    }
-
-    const useNeighborPaint = !(this.territoryRenderer?.isWebGL() ?? false);
-    const neighborsToPaint: TileRef[] = [];
-    const mainSpan = FrameProfiler.start();
-    while (numToRender > 0) {
-      numToRender--;
-
-      const entry = this.tileToRenderQueue.pop();
-      if (!entry) {
-        break;
-      }
-
-      const tile = entry.tile;
-      this.paintTerritory(tile);
-
-      if (useNeighborPaint) {
-        for (const neighbor of this.game.neighbors(tile)) {
-          neighborsToPaint.push(neighbor);
-        }
-      }
-    }
-    FrameProfiler.end("TerritoryLayer:renderTerritory.mainPaint", mainSpan);
-
-    if (useNeighborPaint && neighborsToPaint.length > 0) {
-      const neighborSpan = FrameProfiler.start();
-      for (const neighbor of neighborsToPaint) {
-        this.paintTerritory(neighbor, true);
-      }
-      FrameProfiler.end(
-        "TerritoryLayer:renderTerritory.neighborPaint",
-        neighborSpan,
-      );
-    }
-  }
-
-  paintTerritory(tile: TileRef, _maybeStaleBorder: boolean = false) {
-    this.territoryRenderer?.paintTile(tile);
-  }
-
-  clearTile(tile: TileRef) {
-    this.territoryRenderer?.clearTile(tile);
-  }
-
-  enqueueTile(tile: TileRef) {
-    this.tileToRenderQueue.push({
-      tile: tile,
-      lastUpdate: this.game.ticks() + this.random.nextFloat(0, 0.5),
-    });
-  }
-
-  async enqueuePlayerBorder(player: PlayerView) {
-    const playerBorderTiles = await player.borderTiles();
-    playerBorderTiles.borderTiles.forEach((tile: TileRef) => {
-      this.enqueueTile(tile);
-    });
+  private markTile(tile: TileRef) {
+    this.territoryRenderer?.markTile(tile);
   }
 
   paintHighlightTile(tile: TileRef, color: Colord, alpha: number) {
-    this.clearTile(tile);
     const x = this.game.x(tile);
     const y = this.game.y(tile);
     this.highlightContext.fillStyle = color.alpha(alpha / 255).toRgbString();
@@ -701,6 +501,10 @@ export class TerritoryLayer implements Layer {
     ctx.fill();
   }
 
+  private nowMs(): number {
+    return typeof performance !== "undefined" ? performance.now() : Date.now();
+  }
+
   private updateTickTiming(now: number) {
     const currentTick = this.game.ticks();
     if (currentTick === this.lastGameTick) {
@@ -723,87 +527,46 @@ export class TerritoryLayer implements Layer {
     if (changes.length === 0) {
       return;
     }
-    const durationMs = this.lastTickDurationMs;
+    this.transitionEpoch = (this.transitionEpoch + 1) & 0xff;
+    if (this.transitionEpoch === 0) {
+      this.transitionEpoch = 1;
+    }
+    this.transitionStartTime = now;
+    this.transitionDurationMs = this.lastTickDurationMs;
+    this.transitionProgress = 0;
+    this.transitionActive = false;
+
     for (const change of changes) {
       if (change.newOwner === change.previousOwner) {
         continue;
       }
-      if (change.newOwner === 0) {
-        this.tileTransitions.delete(change.tile);
-        this.territoryRenderer?.setTransitionProgress(change.tile, 1);
-        continue;
+      if (this.territoryRenderer) {
+        this.territoryRenderer.setTransitionEpoch(
+          change.tile,
+          this.transitionEpoch,
+        );
+        this.transitionActive = true;
       }
-      this.tileTransitions.set(change.tile, {
-        startTime: now,
-        durationMs,
-        highlight: change.newOwner !== 0,
-        lastProgressByte: -1,
-      });
-      this.territoryRenderer?.setTransitionProgress(change.tile, 0);
     }
   }
 
   private updateTransitionProgress(now: number) {
-    this.transitionHighlightTiles.length = 0;
-    this.transitionHighlightAlphas.length = 0;
-    if (!this.territoryRenderer || this.tileTransitions.size === 0) {
+    if (!this.territoryRenderer || !this.transitionActive) {
       return;
     }
-
-    const toDelete: TileRef[] = [];
-    for (const [tile, transition] of this.tileTransitions) {
-      const elapsed = now - transition.startTime;
-      const duration = transition.durationMs > 0 ? transition.durationMs : 1;
-      const progress = Math.max(0, Math.min(1, elapsed / duration));
-      const progressByte = Math.round(progress * 255);
-      if (progressByte !== transition.lastProgressByte) {
-        transition.lastProgressByte = progressByte;
-        this.territoryRenderer.setTransitionProgress(tile, progress);
-      }
-      if (transition.highlight && progress < 1) {
-        const alpha = (1 - progress) * 0.35;
-        if (alpha > 0.01) {
-          this.transitionHighlightTiles.push(tile);
-          this.transitionHighlightAlphas.push(alpha);
-        }
-      }
-      if (progress >= 1) {
-        toDelete.push(tile);
-      }
+    const elapsed = now - this.transitionStartTime;
+    const duration =
+      this.transitionDurationMs > 0 ? this.transitionDurationMs : 1;
+    const progress = Math.max(0, Math.min(1, elapsed / duration));
+    const eased = progress * progress * (3 - 2 * progress);
+    this.transitionProgress = eased;
+    this.territoryRenderer.setTransitionProgress(
+      this.transitionProgress,
+      this.transitionEpoch,
+    );
+    if (progress >= 1) {
+      this.transitionActive = false;
     }
-    for (const tile of toDelete) {
-      this.tileTransitions.delete(tile);
-    }
-  }
-
-  private drawTransitionHighlights(
-    context: CanvasRenderingContext2D,
-    now: number,
-  ) {
-    if (this.transitionHighlightTiles.length === 0) {
-      return;
-    }
-    const pulse = 0.75 + 0.25 * Math.sin((now - this.lastTickTime) * 0.015);
-    const highlight = this.theme.spawnHighlightColor();
-    const offsetX = -this.game.width() / 2;
-    const offsetY = -this.game.height() / 2;
-    context.save();
-    context.fillStyle = highlight.toRgbString();
-    for (let i = 0; i < this.transitionHighlightTiles.length; i++) {
-      const alpha = this.transitionHighlightAlphas[i] * pulse;
-      if (alpha <= 0) {
-        continue;
-      }
-      const tile = this.transitionHighlightTiles[i];
-      context.globalAlpha = alpha;
-      context.fillRect(
-        this.game.x(tile) + offsetX,
-        this.game.y(tile) + offsetY,
-        1,
-        1,
-      );
-    }
-    context.restore();
   }
 
   private computePaletteSignature(): string {
@@ -816,7 +579,7 @@ export class TerritoryLayer implements Layer {
   }
 
   private refreshPaletteIfNeeded() {
-    if (!this.territoryRenderer?.isWebGL()) {
+    if (!this.territoryRenderer) {
       return;
     }
     const signature = this.computePaletteSignature();
diff --git a/src/client/graphics/layers/TerritoryRenderers.ts b/src/client/graphics/layers/TerritoryRenderers.ts
deleted file mode 100644
index 2a7d542cb..000000000
--- a/src/client/graphics/layers/TerritoryRenderers.ts
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,324 +0,0 @@
-import { Colord } from "colord";
-import { Theme } from "../../../core/configuration/Config";
-import { TileRef } from "../../../core/game/GameMap";
-import { GameView, PlayerView } from "../../../core/game/GameView";
-import { FrameProfiler } from "../FrameProfiler";
-import {
-  HoverHighlightOptions,
-  TerritoryWebGLRenderer,
-} from "./TerritoryWebGLRenderer";
-
-export interface TerritoryRendererStrategy {
-  isWebGL(): boolean;
-  redraw(): void;
-  markAllDirty(): void;
-  paintTile(tile: TileRef): void;
-  setTransitionProgress(tile: TileRef, progress: number): void;
-  render(
-    context: CanvasRenderingContext2D,
-    viewport: { x: number; y: number; width: number; height: number },
-    shouldBlit: boolean,
-  ): void;
-  setAlternativeView(enabled: boolean): void;
-  setHover(playerSmallId: number | null): void;
-  setHoverHighlightOptions(options: HoverHighlightOptions): void;
-  refreshPalette(): void;
-  clearTile(tile: TileRef): void;
-}
-
-export class CanvasTerritoryRenderer implements TerritoryRendererStrategy {
-  private canvas: HTMLCanvasElement;
-  private context: CanvasRenderingContext2D;
-  private imageData: ImageData;
-  private alternativeImageData: ImageData;
-  private alternativeView = false;
-  private transitionProgress: Map<TileRef, number> = new Map();
-
-  constructor(
-    private readonly game: GameView,
-    private readonly theme: Theme,
-  ) {
-    this.canvas = document.createElement("canvas");
-    const context = this.canvas.getContext("2d");
-    if (!context) throw new Error("2d context not supported");
-    this.context = context;
-    this.imageData = context.createImageData(1, 1);
-    this.alternativeImageData = context.createImageData(1, 1);
-  }
-
-  isWebGL(): boolean {
-    return false;
-  }
-
-  redraw() {
-    this.canvas.width = this.game.width();
-    this.canvas.height = this.game.height();
-    this.imageData = this.context.getImageData(
-      0,
-      0,
-      this.canvas.width,
-      this.canvas.height,
-    );
-    this.alternativeImageData = this.context.getImageData(
-      0,
-      0,
-      this.canvas.width,
-      this.canvas.height,
-    );
-    this.initImageData();
-  }
-
-  markAllDirty(): void {
-    // No special handling needed for canvas path.
-  }
-
-  paintTile(tile: TileRef) {
-    const cpuStart = FrameProfiler.start();
-    const hasOwner = this.game.hasOwner(tile);
-    const rawOwner = hasOwner ? this.game.owner(tile) : null;
-    const owner =
-      rawOwner &&
-      typeof (rawOwner as any).isPlayer === "function" &&
-      (rawOwner as any).isPlayer()
-        ? (rawOwner as PlayerView)
-        : null;
-    const isBorderTile = this.game.isBorder(tile);
-    const hasFallout = this.game.hasFallout(tile);
-    const isDefended =
-      owner && isBorderTile ? this.game.isDefended(tile) : false;
-
-    const transitionFactor = this.transitionProgress.get(tile) ?? 1;
-    if (!owner) {
-      if (hasFallout) {
-        this.paintTileColor(
-          this.imageData,
-          tile,
-          this.theme.falloutColor(),
-          Math.round(150 * transitionFactor),
-        );
-        this.paintTileColor(
-          this.alternativeImageData,
-          tile,
-          this.theme.falloutColor(),
-          Math.round(150 * transitionFactor),
-        );
-      } else {
-        this.clearTile(tile);
-      }
-      FrameProfiler.end("CanvasTerritoryRenderer:paintTile", cpuStart);
-      return;
-    }
-
-    const myPlayer = this.game.myPlayer();
-
-    if (isBorderTile) {
-      if (myPlayer) {
-        const alternativeColor = this.alternateViewColor(owner);
-        this.paintTileColor(
-          this.alternativeImageData,
-          tile,
-          alternativeColor,
-          Math.round(255 * transitionFactor),
-        );
-      }
-      this.paintTileColor(
-        this.imageData,
-        tile,
-        owner.borderColor(tile, isDefended),
-        Math.round(255 * transitionFactor),
-      );
-    } else {
-      // Alternative view only shows borders.
-      this.clearAlternativeTile(tile);
-      this.paintTileColor(
-        this.imageData,
-        tile,
-        owner.territoryColor(tile),
-        Math.round(150 * transitionFactor),
-      );
-    }
-    FrameProfiler.end("CanvasTerritoryRenderer:paintTile", cpuStart);
-  }
-
-  render(
-    context: CanvasRenderingContext2D,
-    viewport: { x: number; y: number; width: number; height: number },
-    shouldBlit: boolean,
-  ) {
-    const { x, y, width, height } = viewport;
-    if (width <= 0 || height <= 0) {
-      return;
-    }
-    if (shouldBlit) {
-      const putImageStart = FrameProfiler.start();
-      this.context.putImageData(
-        this.alternativeView ? this.alternativeImageData : this.imageData,
-        0,
-        0,
-        x,
-        y,
-        width,
-        height,
-      );
-      FrameProfiler.end("CanvasTerritoryRenderer:putImageData", putImageStart);
-    }
-
-    const drawCanvasStart = FrameProfiler.start();
-    context.drawImage(
-      this.canvas,
-      -this.game.width() / 2,
-      -this.game.height() / 2,
-      this.game.width(),
-      this.game.height(),
-    );
-    FrameProfiler.end("CanvasTerritoryRenderer:drawCanvas", drawCanvasStart);
-  }
-
-  setAlternativeView(enabled: boolean): void {
-    this.alternativeView = enabled;
-  }
-
-  setTransitionProgress(tile: TileRef, progress: number): void {
-    const clamped = Math.max(0, Math.min(1, progress));
-    if (clamped >= 1) {
-      if (this.transitionProgress.delete(tile)) {
-        this.paintTile(tile);
-      }
-      return;
-    }
-    const previous = this.transitionProgress.get(tile);
-    if (previous !== undefined && Math.abs(previous - clamped) < 1 / 255) {
-      return;
-    }
-    this.transitionProgress.set(tile, clamped);
-    this.paintTile(tile);
-  }
-
-  setHover(): void {
-    // Canvas path relies on CPU highlight redraw in TerritoryLayer.
-  }
-
-  setHoverHighlightOptions(): void {
-    // Not used in canvas mode.
-  }
-
-  refreshPalette(): void {
-    // Nothing to refresh for canvas path.
-  }
-
-  clearTile(tile: TileRef) {
-    const offset = tile * 4;
-    this.imageData.data[offset + 3] = 0;
-    this.alternativeImageData.data[offset + 3] = 0;
-  }
-
-  private alternateViewColor(other: PlayerView): Colord {
-    const myPlayer = this.game.myPlayer();
-    if (!myPlayer) {
-      return this.theme.neutralColor();
-    }
-    if (other.smallID() === myPlayer.smallID()) {
-      return this.theme.selfColor();
-    }
-    if (other.isFriendly(myPlayer)) {
-      return this.theme.allyColor();
-    }
-    if (!other.hasEmbargo(myPlayer)) {
-      return this.theme.neutralColor();
-    }
-    return this.theme.enemyColor();
-  }
-
-  private paintTileColor(
-    imageData: ImageData,
-    tile: TileRef,
-    color: Colord,
-    alpha: number,
-  ) {
-    const offset = tile * 4;
-    imageData.data[offset] = color.rgba.r;
-    imageData.data[offset + 1] = color.rgba.g;
-    imageData.data[offset + 2] = color.rgba.b;
-    imageData.data[offset + 3] = alpha;
-  }
-
-  private clearAlternativeTile(tile: TileRef) {
-    const offset = tile * 4;
-    this.alternativeImageData.data[offset + 3] = 0;
-  }
-
-  private initImageData() {
-    this.game.forEachTile((tile) => {
-      const offset = tile * 4;
-      this.imageData.data[offset + 3] = 0;
-      this.alternativeImageData.data[offset + 3] = 0;
-    });
-  }
-}
-
-export class WebglTerritoryRenderer implements TerritoryRendererStrategy {
-  constructor(
-    private readonly renderer: TerritoryWebGLRenderer,
-    private readonly game: GameView,
-  ) {}
-
-  isWebGL(): boolean {
-    return true;
-  }
-
-  redraw(): void {
-    this.markAllDirty();
-  }
-
-  markAllDirty(): void {
-    this.renderer.markAllDirty();
-  }
-
-  paintTile(tile: TileRef): void {
-    this.renderer.markTile(tile);
-  }
-
-  setTransitionProgress(tile: TileRef, progress: number): void {
-    this.renderer.setTransitionProgress(tile, progress);
-  }
-
-  render(
-    context: CanvasRenderingContext2D,
-    _viewport: { x: number; y: number; width: number; height: number },
-    _shouldBlit: boolean,
-  ): void {
-    const webglRenderStart = FrameProfiler.start();
-    this.renderer.render();
-    FrameProfiler.end("WebglTerritoryRenderer:render", webglRenderStart);
-
-    const drawCanvasStart = FrameProfiler.start();
-    context.drawImage(
-      this.renderer.canvas,
-      -this.game.width() / 2,
-      -this.game.height() / 2,
-      this.game.width(),
-      this.game.height(),
-    );
-    FrameProfiler.end("WebglTerritoryRenderer:drawImage", drawCanvasStart);
-  }
-
-  setAlternativeView(enabled: boolean): void {
-    this.renderer.setAlternativeView(enabled);
-  }
-
-  setHover(playerSmallId: number | null): void {
-    this.renderer.setHoveredPlayerId(playerSmallId ?? null);
-  }
-
-  setHoverHighlightOptions(options: HoverHighlightOptions): void {
-    this.renderer.setHoverHighlightOptions(options);
-  }
-
-  refreshPalette(): void {
-    this.renderer.refreshPalette();
-  }
-
-  clearTile(): void {
-    // No-op for WebGL; canvas alpha clearing is not used.
-  }
-}
diff --git a/src/client/graphics/layers/TerritoryWebGLRenderer.ts b/src/client/graphics/layers/TerritoryWebGLRenderer.ts
index 5647877f8..ef3a11758 100644
--- a/src/client/graphics/layers/TerritoryWebGLRenderer.ts
+++ b/src/client/graphics/layers/TerritoryWebGLRenderer.ts
@@ -43,6 +43,10 @@ export class TerritoryWebGLRenderer {
     relations: WebGLUniformLocation | null;
     patterns: WebGLUniformLocation | null;
     transitions: WebGLUniformLocation | null;
+    transitionEpoch: WebGLUniformLocation | null;
+    transitionProgress: WebGLUniformLocation | null;
+    transitionHintColor: WebGLUniformLocation | null;
+    transitionHintStrength: WebGLUniformLocation | null;
     patternStride: WebGLUniformLocation | null;
     patternRows: WebGLUniformLocation | null;
     fallout: WebGLUniformLocation | null;
@@ -62,7 +66,7 @@ export class TerritoryWebGLRenderer {
   };
 
   private readonly state: Uint16Array;
-  private readonly transitionState: Uint8Array;
+  private readonly transitionEpochState: Uint8Array;
   private readonly dirtyRows: Map<number, DirtySpan> = new Map();
   private readonly transitionDirtyRows: Map<number, DirtySpan> = new Map();
   private needsFullUpload = true;
@@ -75,6 +79,10 @@ export class TerritoryWebGLRenderer {
   private hoverPulseSpeed = Math.PI * 2;
   private hoveredPlayerId = -1;
   private animationStartTime = Date.now();
+  private transitionEpoch = 1;
+  private transitionProgress = 1;
+  private transitionHintColor: [number, number, number] = [1, 1, 1];
+  private transitionHintStrength = 0.25;
   private readonly userSettings = new UserSettings();
   private readonly patternBytesCache = new Map<string, Uint8Array>();
 
@@ -88,8 +96,7 @@ export class TerritoryWebGLRenderer {
     this.canvas.height = game.height();
 
     this.state = state;
-    this.transitionState = new Uint8Array(state.length);
-    this.transitionState.fill(255);
+    this.transitionEpochState = new Uint8Array(state.length);
 
     this.gl = this.canvas.getContext("webgl2", {
       premultipliedAlpha: true,
@@ -113,6 +120,10 @@ export class TerritoryWebGLRenderer {
         relations: null,
         patterns: null,
         transitions: null,
+        transitionEpoch: null,
+        transitionProgress: null,
+        transitionHintColor: null,
+        transitionHintStrength: null,
         patternStride: null,
         patternRows: null,
         fallout: null,
@@ -150,6 +161,10 @@ export class TerritoryWebGLRenderer {
         relations: null,
         patterns: null,
         transitions: null,
+        transitionEpoch: null,
+        transitionProgress: null,
+        transitionHintColor: null,
+        transitionHintStrength: null,
         patternStride: null,
         patternRows: null,
         fallout: null,
@@ -177,6 +192,19 @@ export class TerritoryWebGLRenderer {
       relations: gl.getUniformLocation(this.program, "u_relations"),
       patterns: gl.getUniformLocation(this.program, "u_patterns"),
       transitions: gl.getUniformLocation(this.program, "u_transitions"),
+      transitionEpoch: gl.getUniformLocation(this.program, "u_transitionEpoch"),
+      transitionProgress: gl.getUniformLocation(
+        this.program,
+        "u_transitionProgress",
+      ),
+      transitionHintColor: gl.getUniformLocation(
+        this.program,
+        "u_transitionHintColor",
+      ),
+      transitionHintStrength: gl.getUniformLocation(
+        this.program,
+        "u_transitionHintStrength",
+      ),
       patternStride: gl.getUniformLocation(this.program, "u_patternStride"),
       patternRows: gl.getUniformLocation(this.program, "u_patternRows"),
       fallout: gl.getUniformLocation(this.program, "u_fallout"),
@@ -274,7 +302,7 @@ export class TerritoryWebGLRenderer {
       0,
       gl.RED_INTEGER,
       gl.UNSIGNED_BYTE,
-      this.transitionState,
+      this.transitionEpochState,
     );
 
     gl.useProgram(this.program);
@@ -370,6 +398,27 @@ export class TerritoryWebGLRenderer {
     if (this.uniforms.hoverPulseSpeed) {
       gl.uniform1f(this.uniforms.hoverPulseSpeed, this.hoverPulseSpeed);
     }
+    if (this.uniforms.transitionEpoch) {
+      gl.uniform1i(this.uniforms.transitionEpoch, this.transitionEpoch);
+    }
+    if (this.uniforms.transitionProgress) {
+      gl.uniform1f(this.uniforms.transitionProgress, this.transitionProgress);
+    }
+    if (this.uniforms.transitionHintColor) {
+      this.transitionHintColor = [1, 1, 1];
+      gl.uniform3f(
+        this.uniforms.transitionHintColor,
+        this.transitionHintColor[0],
+        this.transitionHintColor[1],
+        this.transitionHintColor[2],
+      );
+    }
+    if (this.uniforms.transitionHintStrength) {
+      gl.uniform1f(
+        this.uniforms.transitionHintStrength,
+        this.transitionHintStrength,
+      );
+    }
 
     gl.enable(gl.BLEND);
     gl.blendFunc(gl.ONE, gl.ONE_MINUS_SRC_ALPHA);
@@ -382,8 +431,7 @@ export class TerritoryWebGLRenderer {
     if (state.length !== expected) {
       return {
         renderer: null,
-        reason:
-          "Tile state buffer size mismatch; falling back to canvas territory draw.",
+        reason: "Tile state buffer size mismatch; WebGL renderer disabled.",
       };
     }
 
@@ -391,7 +439,7 @@ export class TerritoryWebGLRenderer {
     if (!renderer.isValid()) {
       return {
         renderer: null,
-        reason: "WebGL2 not available; falling back to canvas territory draw.",
+        reason: "WebGL2 not available; WebGL renderer disabled.",
       };
     }
     return { renderer };
@@ -444,13 +492,12 @@ export class TerritoryWebGLRenderer {
     }
   }
 
-  setTransitionProgress(tile: TileRef, progress: number) {
-    const clamped = Math.max(0, Math.min(1, progress));
-    const value = Math.round(clamped * 255);
-    if (this.transitionState[tile] === value) {
+  setTransitionEpoch(tile: TileRef, epoch: number) {
+    const value = epoch & 0xff;
+    if (this.transitionEpochState[tile] === value) {
       return;
     }
-    this.transitionState[tile] = value;
+    this.transitionEpochState[tile] = value;
     if (this.needsTransitionFullUpload) {
       return;
     }
@@ -465,9 +512,16 @@ export class TerritoryWebGLRenderer {
     }
   }
 
+  setTransitionProgress(progress: number, epoch: number) {
+    this.transitionEpoch = epoch & 0xff;
+    this.transitionProgress = Math.max(0, Math.min(1, progress));
+  }
+
   markAllDirty() {
     this.needsFullUpload = true;
     this.dirtyRows.clear();
+    this.needsTransitionFullUpload = true;
+    this.transitionDirtyRows.clear();
   }
 
   refreshPalette() {
@@ -528,6 +582,12 @@ export class TerritoryWebGLRenderer {
       const viewerId = this.game.myPlayer()?.smallID() ?? 0;
       gl.uniform1i(this.uniforms.viewerId, viewerId);
     }
+    if (this.uniforms.transitionEpoch) {
+      gl.uniform1i(this.uniforms.transitionEpoch, this.transitionEpoch);
+    }
+    if (this.uniforms.transitionProgress) {
+      gl.uniform1f(this.uniforms.transitionProgress, this.transitionProgress);
+    }
 
     gl.clearColor(0, 0, 0, 0);
     gl.clear(gl.COLOR_BUFFER_BIT);
@@ -611,7 +671,7 @@ export class TerritoryWebGLRenderer {
         0,
         gl.RED_INTEGER,
         gl.UNSIGNED_BYTE,
-        this.transitionState,
+        this.transitionEpochState,
       );
       this.needsTransitionFullUpload = false;
       this.transitionDirtyRows.clear();
@@ -627,7 +687,10 @@ export class TerritoryWebGLRenderer {
     for (const [y, span] of this.transitionDirtyRows) {
       const width = span.maxX - span.minX + 1;
       const offset = y * this.canvas.width + span.minX;
-      const rowSlice = this.transitionState.subarray(offset, offset + width);
+      const rowSlice = this.transitionEpochState.subarray(
+        offset,
+        offset + width,
+      );
       gl.texSubImage2D(
         gl.TEXTURE_2D,
         0,
@@ -834,6 +897,10 @@ export class TerritoryWebGLRenderer {
       uniform usampler2D u_relations;
       uniform usampler2D u_patterns;
       uniform usampler2D u_transitions;
+      uniform int u_transitionEpoch;
+      uniform float u_transitionProgress;
+      uniform vec3 u_transitionHintColor;
+      uniform float u_transitionHintStrength;
       uniform int u_patternStride;
       uniform int u_patternRows;
       uniform int u_viewerId;
@@ -918,7 +985,11 @@ export class TerritoryWebGLRenderer {
         ivec2 texCoord = ivec2(fragCoord.x, int(u_resolution.y) - 1 - fragCoord.y);
 
         uint state = texelFetch(u_state, texCoord, 0).r;
-        float transition = float(texelFetch(u_transitions, texCoord, 0).r) / 255.0;
+        uint transitionEpoch = texelFetch(u_transitions, texCoord, 0).r;
+        bool inTransition =
+          (u_transitionEpoch != 0) && (transitionEpoch == uint(u_transitionEpoch));
+        float transition = inTransition ? u_transitionProgress : 1.0;
+        float hintMix = inTransition ? u_transitionHintStrength * (1.0 - transition) : 0.0;
         uint owner = state & 0xFFFu;
         bool hasFallout = (state & 0x2000u) != 0u;
         bool isDefended = (state & 0x1000u) != 0u;
@@ -926,7 +997,7 @@ export class TerritoryWebGLRenderer {
         if (owner == 0u) {
           if (hasFallout) {
             vec3 color = u_fallout.rgb;
-            float a = u_alpha * transition;
+            float a = u_alpha;
             outColor = vec4(color * a, a);
           } else {
             outColor = vec4(0.0);
@@ -982,7 +1053,7 @@ export class TerritoryWebGLRenderer {
             float pulse = u_hoverPulseStrength > 0.0
               ? (1.0 - u_hoverPulseStrength) +
                 u_hoverPulseStrength * (0.5 + 0.5 * sin(u_time * u_hoverPulseSpeed))
-              : 1.0;
+            : 1.0;
             color = mix(color, u_hoverHighlightColor, u_hoverHighlightStrength * pulse);
           }
           outColor = vec4(color * a, a);
@@ -1018,13 +1089,17 @@ export class TerritoryWebGLRenderer {
           }
 
           color = borderColor;
-          a = baseBorder.a;
+          a = baseBorder.a * transition;
         } else {
           bool isPrimary = patternIsPrimary(owner, texCoord);
           color = isPrimary ? base.rgb : baseBorder.rgb;
           a = u_alpha;
         }
 
+        if (hintMix > 0.0) {
+          color = mix(color, u_transitionHintColor, hintMix);
+        }
+
         if (u_hoveredPlayerId >= 0.0 && abs(float(owner) - u_hoveredPlayerId) < 0.5) {
           float pulse = u_hoverPulseStrength > 0.0
             ? (1.0 - u_hoverPulseStrength) +
@@ -1033,7 +1108,6 @@ export class TerritoryWebGLRenderer {
           color = mix(color, u_hoverHighlightColor, u_hoverHighlightStrength * pulse);
         }
 
-        a *= transition;
         outColor = vec4(color * a, a);
       }
     `;